Path

buy custom Albuterol in Asthma essay

buy custom Albuterol in Asthma essay Asthma is one of the most common pulmonary illnesses that affect more than fourteen million people in the United States (CDC, 2008). The prevalence of asthma is increasing in most countries, and estimates show that the numbers are likely to rise by 100 million by 2025 (Bateman et al., 2008). Asthma is characterized by reversible airway obstruction following exposure to environmental allergens or irritants or respiratory viral infection (CDC, 2008). Asthma is also characterized by impediment and irritation that occurs in many patients. Treatment of asthma has always been medications that are aimed at controlling the inflammation as well as the medications for general relief of the severe symptoms. However, the recommended management is the clinical assessment of the symptoms and the lung function assessment of an individual. These are viewed as the measures of the outcomes that result from this condition. Most asthma exacerbations are dealt with in various outpatient systems. However, more severe conditions require hospitalization. These hospitalizations are responsible for the foremost healthcare expenditures by patients. In the United States, these hospitalizations lead to over 400,000 cases of asthma hospitalizations annually. This eventually leads to very high expenditures for asthma related conditions (Bharmal Kamble, 2009). Asthma in both children and adults is associated with an increase in direct expenses, which eventually brings the expenditure to a very high level according to healthcare costs. The main therapy in the treatment of asthma is the administration of 2-receptor agonists which reverse the acute airway obstruction as well as other conditions such as cough. According to Ameredes (2009), levalbuterol and albuterol are the most common short acting 2-receptor agonists in the treatment of asthma. Racemic albuterol is a mixture of two stereo isomers R-albuterol and S-albuterol. Clinical studies have distinguished the two isomers in terms of their affinity. Studies upon isolation of the two isomers have revealed that R-albuterol is responsible for the bronchodilator activity. However, S-albuterol does not possess bronchodilator characteristics, but it acts in association with various pharmacological activities to neutralize the therapeutic effects of R-albuterol (Handley, 2000). Levalbuterol, also referred to as levosalbuterol is an alternative treatment for asthma and other pulmonary illnesses such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder (COPD). It blocks the beta-2-receptor to prevent the constriction of the airways in these conditions, and is therefore called a bronchodilator. Cells in the airways contain receptors that are called beta-2 receptors. Levalbuterol binds and activates the beta-2 receptors and is hence referred to as a beta agonist. This initiates signaling within the cells which results to the relaxation and opening of airways. However, the safety of albuterol and Levalbuterol is generally different. The S-isomer in albuterol has been believed to be inert in nature and its presence in the drug of no consequence. But it is now thought to foreshorten the duration of R-albuterol by compressing its potency (Handley, 2000). The main purpose of this study is to provide a comparative view of asthma related therapies, as well as the outcomes of tre atment after the maintenance treatment of asthma using levalbuterol and albuterol. Literature Review Studies in patient preferences on the type of medication provide crucial information on the evaluation of asthma symptoms as well as the effects of medication on the wellbeing of the patients and the levels of functional activities (Bateman et al., 2008). These studies have been insufficient in evaluating the effectiveness of albuterol in treating asthma. Albuterol has been in use for a long time but is said to be associated with various side effects such as tachycardia and jitters. The introduction of levalbuterol in 1999 has brought an opportunity to assess patient predilections between albuterol and levalbuterol. A stepwise approach to disease management is necessary for the assessment and eventual treatment of asthma. One of the main goals of asthma treatment is to uphold the wellbeing of people as one of the main humanistic upshot measures (Reed, 1985). Today, clinicians use many other measures to manage diseases with a need to control the effects of asthma as well as the wellbeing of the patients. These measures include patient satisfaction as well as other health related measures that are centered on the quality of life. Studies have revealed that patients preferences have a great impact on medication side effects, as well as patients quality of life. Patients compliance with the medication is also necessary for successful control of asthma (Bharmal Kamble, 2009). Disease control measures are also very crucial in reinforcing the positive perceptions of the treatment of asthma. When levalbuterol was approved in 2005, studies suggested that its use resulted in better respiratory parameters as well as fewer hospitalizations that brought about very little, if any, side effects and though it is priced much higher than albuterol since it has a higher duration of action (5-8 hours) as compared to albuterol (4-6 hours), its use led to generally lower treatment costs in terms of hospitalization and subsequent treatments (Carl, 2003). Studies comparing levalbuterol to albuterol revealed that levalbuterol yielded bronchodilation with few side effects. However, these results are not universal and some studies suggest no significant differences in clinical endpoints. The baseline distinctiveness for the two groups of patients (those who were administered with albuterol and those who were administered with Levalbuterol) was very distinctive (Ameredes, 2009). In the medical field, albuterol has been in use for a long time, one of the factors that make it preferable. Due to the mixture of the two isomers (R)-albuterol and (S)-albuterol that are considered inert, albuterol is considered somewhat classical in the medical field. However, the single-isomer formulation that has been manufactured recently is used therapeutically when the other component is deemed to be undesirable. Pharmacology Levalbuterol and albuterol are 2-receptor agonists and they reverse the acute airway obstruction as well as other conditions such as cough. The two drugs serve to reduce the resistance in the airway as they are known to enlarge the diameter of the bronchi or the air passages (Ozminkowsk et al., 2007). These drugs, therefore, help to enhance the overall flow of air both into the lungs and out. The drugs work on the beta-2 receptors resulting in the relaxation of the pulmonary smooth muscles (Perrin-Fayolle et al., 1996). Studies conducted with regard to the metabolism of levalbuterol in the human tissues indicate a 5-11 fold better sulfoconjugation within various human tissues than albuterol. A single dose of the albuterol dosage, whether taken orally or inhaled, results in a higher blood level within the body than levalbuterol (Perrin-Fayolle et al., 1996). Perhaps, this indicates a predominance of the (s)-albuterol, an inactive product, after repeated dosing of the active albuterol. It is estimated that up to 8 % of patients who receive nebulized racemic albuterol develop paradoxical bronchospasm, a condition which is life threatening. This decline in efficacy could be attributed to the composition of racemic albuterol. Levalbuterol is the therapeutically active bronchodilator in racemic albuterol, also referred to as (R)-albuterol. Evidence indicate that (S)-albuterol does not possess any bronchodilatory activity, in fact, it increases the level of calcium in the smooth muscle cells in vitro, which favors contraction and opposes bronchodilation. This also leads to increased in vitro bronchial reactivity of human airway smooth muscles. Clinically, the isomer promoted increased hypersensitivity and increased bronchospasm that is methacholine induced in patients with moderately severe asthma. On the contrary, levalbuterol, when administered as a single isomer, eliminates all the detrimental effects of (S)-albuterol (Bateman et al., 2008) Research has also shown that racemic albuterol and Levalbuterol are important since they produce effects that can be used as prescriptions for cancer treatment. The treatments include corticosteroid strengthening and the diminution of inflammatory mediators. However, on the other hand, (S)-albuterol produces contradictory effects. Studies indicate that the adverse effects associated with albuterol, such as jitters, tychardia and bronchospasms, are less frequent with levalbuterol (Gawchik, 2007). Symptom relief was also perceived to be higher, leading to a greater overall satisfaction with Levalbuterol treatment. However, it is important to bear in mind that while levalbuterol and albuterol help in relaxing the smooth muscles and increasing the flow of air within the airways, they do not actually reduce the speed of the progression of the primary disease (Ozminkowsk et al., 2007). They only help in minimizing the signs and symptoms of exercise and wheeze limitations along with the sho rtness of breath, leading to a better life for the people living with COPD. Improved outcomes Many investigators in their publications from studies have revealed that the use of levalbuterol yields better symptom relief and less frequency of the adverse effects as compared to albuterol. However, their pattern of outcomes cannot be applied universally because other studies propose that there is not a clear difference in clinical endpoints. Ozminkowski Wang (2007), state that the various publications that have resulted from various studies are difficult for doctors to follow. Most of these data highlight the effects of albuterol and levalbuterol in efficiency and safety. This was done by comparing the relief of symptoms and the exhibited side effects of each form of treatment. However, this clinical research provides no superiority of levalbuterol over albuterol. The effects of levalbuterol may be greatest to patients with moderate to severe asthma, especially in cases of racemic albuteol overuse (Ameredes, 2009). When a patient inhales racemic albuterol, he or she has a persistent effect that is caused by (S)-albuterol. This is in comparison to levalbuterol. This suggests potential contradictory outcomes from clinical experiments. One study carried out on children under the age of twelve years evaluated the treatment of asthma in children by caregivers who used either albuterol or levalbuterol. Various interviews were scheduled for caregivers, and the main questions were the satisfaction level of their children with bronchospasms. The caregivers were supposed to report contentment or discontent. The patients were administered with albuterol and levalbuterol for four consecutive weeks. After the first dose, levalbuterol created a greater relief of symptoms compared to doses of albuterol in nearly all patients including those with relentless asthma (Carl, 2003). Ameredes (2009), carried out a research study to find out the distinctive difference between albuterol and Levalbuterol. The objective of this study was to find out whether levalbuterol reduced the costs of treating asthma as compared to albuterol and to find out the various ways that levalbuterol and albuterol were different. He used a correlational research design that brought forward thirty seven patients who were diagnosed with acute asthma. The patients in his sample were children between the ages of 6-18. The results of this study indicate that Levalbuterols potency is 2-fold than racemic albuterol and 90 to 100 fold more than S- albuterol. Ameredes (2009) suggests that there have been highly heterogenous results from various studies that compare the clear differences between albuterol and levalbuterol. In one study, levalbuterol was more effective in suppressing bronchospasm than (R) albuterol and (S) albuterol. However, subsequent research studies revealed that there are equivalences between albuterol and levalbuterol. Some indicated that the effect of 1.25 mg levalbuterol was similar to that of 2.5 mg racemic albuterol, with (S) albuterol showing little measurable effect. The above studies were shot-term, and thus a short-time approach would be used to evaluate the two drugs. This approach, however, did not measure the difference that existed between albuterol and its isomers, if used chronically. Nelson (1998), conducted a clinical trial that would compare albuterol to levalbuterol. The study was based on both children and adults that were diagnosed with acute asthma in the United States. In his study, the patients were selected randomly and assigned levalbuterol or racemic albuterol. This trial was aimed at checking the equivalences of equal amounts of the two drugs. The study was correlational and involved fifteen patients from a local hospital. The study resulted in greater improvements in force expiratory volume in one second in the levalbuterol group as compared to the dose-equivalent of racemic albuterol group. This implied that an equimolar dose of levalbuterol produced better results than albuterol. The dose that produced numerically equivalent bronchodilation as recemic albuterol, 2.5 mg, was 0.63 mg levalbuterol, not 1.25 mg which is the mass equivalent dose. The interpretation of this data shows a particularly damaging effect of S-albuterol (Nelson, 1998). Clinical studies have been carried out in pediatric patients with asthma. According to Gawchik (2007), a randomized placebo-controlled trial was necessary to compare the two drugs. In his study, he discovered that no differences existed in bronchodilation with levalbuterol and albuterol. This was because there was no dose-related correlation in children with moderate asthma. However, the dose-related correlation was found in children with severe asthma. In another study of acutely asthmatic patients between the ages of 6-18 years, there was a conclusion that the more expensive levalbuterol did not reduce the amount of return visits to the hospital for further asthma management as compared to racemic albuterol (PerrinFayolle, 1996). The treatment also did not shorten the length of stay at the emergency department, improve expiratory flow (PEF), neither did it reduce the number of nebulized treatments when compared to racemic albuterol. On the other hand, contrary to this, Gawchik (2007), writes about the new form of albuterol inhalers that are in use in the market since 2009 in a bid to compare albuterol to levalbuterol. He notes that due to the recent changes, the new form is adjusted and better in terms of the security of use due to the fact that they are both human and environmentally friendly. The chloroflouroalkane found in rescue inhalers both in levalbuterol and albuterol have been found to harm the environment. Therefore, the inclusion of hydroflouroalkane has been important as a propellant. This is actually a positive step in the study of the effects of the two types of drugs. Ozminkowski Wang (2007), conducted another age-stratified randomized study with hospital admission rate of the patients presented to the emergency department as the outcome. The study was aimed at finding out the frequency of admission of patients to the emergency section and the return rate after discharge. The objectives of this study were to find out the patient-return rate after treatment in the emergency section and find out the role played by levalbuterol in assisting the quick recovery of patients in the emergency section. The admission rate was lower in the levalbuterol group as compared to the albuterol group (Ozminkowski Wang, 2007). The risk of the admitted group was greater in the albutrerol groups than the levalbuterol group. However, the length of hospital stay in the levalbuterol group was not significantly shorter than the albuterol group and there were no adverse effects in both groups. In this study, the conclusion was that substituting the administration of albuterol with levalbuterol would reduce the number of hospitalizations (Carl et al., 2003). This was supported by another study by Nowark et. al. that showed that levalbutereol was preferrable to albuterol in the treatment of acute asthma. Administration of the same dose showed that improvement was greater in levalbuterol as compared to racemic albuterol. The study also indicated that patients with higher plasma levels of (S) albuterol show slower improvement and have a higher likelihood of hospital admission In the same research, the investigator notes several factors. First and foremost, he acknowlegdes the fact that abuterol is the most commonly prescribed inhaler with beta-2 agonist. In addition, he notes that it is also considered the best drug when it comes to reversal of acute bronchospasm. Due to the equal mixture of (S) and (R)-albuterols, there is little effect of broncholdilating activities. On the contrary, the (R)- albuterol has a better binding effect to beta-2 receptors as compared to the (S)-albuterol (Tripp, 2008). According to the investigator, the creation of levalbuterol was needed for several reasons including fewer incidences of transcient tachycardia; the chance of better tolerability as compared to albuterol; and a higher efficacy than albuterol. A further examination of the research, showed that patients benefit more from levalbuterol. Additionally, the outcomes of the study revealed that levalbuterol was better than albuterol in a sense that patients treated with levalbuterol required less medication after recovery and that they had shorter lengths of hospital stay. A regression analysis revealed that levalbuterol was allied with duration of stay savings. Another study conducted by Truitt, Witko, Halpern (2003), showed similar improvements in FEV and mean heart rate decreased with levalbuterol. This study that was carried out in comparison to albuterol. However, the researchers note that the magnitude of the difference is minute. Therefore, it is important to study these differences together in order to detrmine the most reliable results. Nonetheless, the investigators note that results may be helpful to patients who are affected with arrhythmias, cardiac conditions and structural heart diseases. This is because if the differences are not considered, it may worsen the heart condition. Therefore, the investigators note that the transcient tachycardia that is evident in cardiac patients may be a key indicator of the dose dependancy that is formed with time by patients who use levalbuterol and albuterol (Truit, Witko Halpern, 2003). In another study, Nowak (2008) and his colleagues compared the effects that are brought forth by nebulized levalbuterol. This was in comparison to the ones that are brought forth by racemic albuterol. The subjects were 627 adults who suffered from acute asthma. The subjects were radnomly given the opportunity to use either 1.25 mg of levalbuterol or 2.5 mg of albuterol. This was after twenty minutes of emergency admission and 40 minutes later all the patients received 40 mg of prednisone. The level of expiratory volume was forcefully increased by 40 percent when the patients were administered with levalbuterol, this is in comparison to racemic albuterol. The investigators also discovered that this coresponded to a fourty percent reduction in the subjects who required hospitalization (Nowak, 2008). The effects of levalbuterol were evident in patients who had severe asthma. The high levels of (S)-albuterol in the circulating plasma are thought to be the main cause of overuse of racemic albuterol. The number of relapses in the two groups after a period of thirty days, however, did not differ. In another randomized clinical trial, Carl et al. compared the use levalbuterol with racemic albuterol in over 500 pediatric patients reporting to a hospitals ED. Hospital admission rates were reduced among those receiving levalbuterol in comparison with those receiving racemic albuterol treatments. The study was also seeking to establish the hospital conversion where levalbuterol racemic albuterol was replaced with levalbuterol 1.25 mg every 8 hours or levalbuterol 0.63 mg every 6 hours. Despite that the frequency of levalbuterol was less, the patients required fewer rescue treatments to reduce the symptoms than did those treated with racemmic albuterol. This means that the less frequently scheduled treatments with levalbuterol will lead to reduced workload and reduced number of missed treatments because of unavailability of therapists. This is also supported by Truit et al, who reported that treatment with levalbuterol required one day less of admission, significantly fewer treatments and a 67 % decrease in readmissions within 30 days of discharge after treatment with the 2-agonist compared with racemic albuterol. Other studies reported similar results, indicating that treatment with levalbuterol reported decreased numbers of daily treatments, reductions of staffing and fewer as-needed treatments when compared to racemic albuterol as the acting 2-agonist. Nowak (2008) conducted another study of patients who suffered from acute asthma and another group suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). There was a comparison of treatment of levalbuterol and albuterol that were administred in a period of 6 to 8 hours in 1.25 and 2.5 miligrams repectively. There were fewer nebulizations that were requiredwhen it came to the case of levalbuterol. On the other hand, there was an increased need for rescue aerosols in the period of 14 days hospitalization. However, most of the other outcomes were similar in the two groups. This is including the costs and study of the pulmonary functions. In the study by Truitt et. al. (2003), the retrospective chart review on hospitalized patients who had asthma and COPD showed that the results were more or less the same. This therefore led to the conclusion that the benefit of levalbuterol over albuterol is usually greatest in patients who have moderate as compared to severe asthma, particularly t hose with an overuse of albuterol. Side Effects Vitro and animal studies have shown significant outcomes that can be used as a basis of comparison. Many research studies reveal that albuterol is associated with severe effects that raise concerns, such as chest pain and high blood pressure. This could be because of the fact that inhalation of racemic albuterol leads to pushiness in circulating S-albuterol twelve times more than levalbuterol (Ameredes, 2009). Levalbuterol has been acclaimed to be a safer form of albuterol but it comes at increased costs. It costs five times more than racemic albuterol. According to Gawchick (2007), albuterol is purely used for the treatment of symptoms that are occasional but an overdose of the drug can be fatal. One of the precautionary measures that should be taken when using albuterol is that the use should be discontinued in cases of adverse side effects, including hypersensitivity; abnormal heart rhythms; diabetes; epilepsy this is coupled with seizure disorder; and heart diseases. The researcher also notes wheezing, pounding heart, tight chest, nervousness, blood pressure, and chest pains side effect may be a sign of hypersensitvity. Evidence from preclinical and clinical studies suggest that the worsening of asthma symptoms in some patients with continued use of albuterol or its overuse could be contributed by the racemic mixtures of albuterol isomers, which may result from the presence of the (S)-albuterol. The slow phamarcokinetic profile is one significant characteristic of (S)-albuterol. It is metabolized 12 times slower than levalbuterol. This is because it does not have sulfation and elimination enzymes preferrentially specific to levalbuterol. This leads to the differences in circulating levels of the isomers after administration of racemic albuterol. After administering a dose of inhalable racemic albuterol, it has been shown that the circulating levels of levalbuterol are undetectable wheras the levels of (S)-albuterol persisit for as long as 12 hours and may be preferentially retained in the lungs (PerrinFayolle, 1996). Therefore, it is important to consider the physiologic and pharmacologic effects of each isomer within the racemate mixture separately. According to Truit, Witko Halpern (2003), the issue of tolerance is still a bit controversial. There are some researchers that have noted that the overuse of racemic albuterol may lead to some factors that include hypokalemia and even increased mortality. Therefore, due to the lack of bronchodilator activities in (S)-albuterol, there may arise the situation of worsening air activity or rather pro-inflammatory effects. This is because it is metabolized 10-fold slower than levalbuterol (Truit, Witko Halpern, 2003). This could additionally result in the accumulation of (S)-isomer over (R)-albuterol leading to paradoxic bronchospasm. In addition, patients who suffer from asthma or COPD and other cardiac diseases have a likelihood of worsening the situation when they experience tachycardia and this therefore means that they are safer when using levalbuterol as compared to albuterol (Lovtall, Palmqvist, Maloney, Vantresca and Ward 2004). Studies have also discovered poor adherence to med ication by patients who suffer from tachycardia The other main factor that was noted when comparing the two agents is cost. Before the year 2009, the metered-dose inhaler (MDI) that had generic formulations was widely available. There were also versions of albuterol that were much cheaper. They included proventil and ventolin. This fact also applied to levalbuterol. On the contrary, many of the MDI formulations contained a lot of chloroflourocarbon and therefore, this meant that they had to be banned by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration). This was particularly due to environmental reasons. Therefore, the unavailabilty of the MDI has led to the leveling in price of the two agents (Truitt et. al., 2003). However, there are variations in the cost of levalbuterol nebulization as compared to albuterol nebulization. The use of levalbuterol faces various limitations including higher costs, small sample size in terms of testing, inadequate manpower and lack of support by many researchers This however, does not mean that albuterol should be preffered over levalbuterol since there are instances when levalbuteral tends to be widely accepted. First and foremost, there is a need by patients who have severe chronic asthma to get the doses of beta-2 agonist. This happens in spite of the use of controller therapies. A study by Tripp (2008) showed that levalbuterol resulted in Forced Expiratory Values (FEV) that were equivalent to or better than those that were observable in albuterol. The -mediated effects were lower for a single dose of levalbuterol as compared to racemic albuterol. In this studies, treatment of asthma using levalbuterol was cheaper due to the little numbers of hospital admissions (Tripp, 2008). In this particular study, levalbuterol treatment in the emergency department was cost effective because it led to a situation of patients recovering faster and thus reducing the cost of healthcare. Although the (R) -albuterol and (S) albuterol isomers are similar in their molecular weight and their physiochemical properties, their 3-dimensional structure makes them super imposable. This conformational stereochemistry makes their properties distinct and for each isomer which results to them being considered different compounds (Nelson, 1998) As a result, regulatory authorities have demanded that the potential risks associated with the mixtures that make up racemic albuterol be quantified. Levalbuterol was developed to minimize the side effects associated with (S)-albuterol and maximize therapeutic effects. The findings of this study demonstrate that the use of levalbuterol significantly reduces hospital admission rates in patients presenting to the ED with acute asthma when compared to racemic albuterol. The study suggests that levalbuterol has clinical benefits over racemic albuterol in critical care settings, and these benefits are evident in both pediatric and adult patients administered with levalbuterol. The above studies were conducted in geographically distinct ED settings, with varying patient populations, physicians, and socioeconomic conditions demonstrating that substituting racemic albuterol with levalbuterol improves patient outcomes by reducing hospital admissions. Different studies have suggested that levalbuterol produces greater bronchodilation than racemic albuterol and improves discharge rates and health resource use (Ozminkowski Wang 2007). A post-hoc analysis on the patients found that their (S)-albuterol plasma levels negatively impacted their baseline forced expiratory volume in 1 second as well as pulmonary function an hour after ED treatment was commenced. Despite the higher cost of levalbuterol in the treatment of asthma, when the total costs are considered, the differences in the costs are insignificant. The overall costs were similar in the levalbuterol group and the racemic albuterol group. The cost reductions were reported with increasing severity of asthma. This results from reduced hospital admissions and less frequent dosing, making the treatment more cost effective despite its high cost (Nowak, 2006) The clinical and preclinical benefits of levalbuterol observed in the literature cited in this investigation occur due to the difference between the two agents which is the presence of (S)-isomer in the racemic mixture. Despite previous studies suggesting that it is inert, the (S) isomer may instead have some proinflammatory effects. The bronchoprotective efficacy of racemic albuterol progressively declines with regular use, leading to reduced interval between dose and decreased bronchodilation (Nelson, 1998). The above findings indicate that levalbuterol, when used in place of albuterol reduces the number of hospital admissions, and is cost effective in the treatment of acute asthma in the ED setting. This makes the observations provocative and interesting since the only difference between the two agents is the presence of the (S)-isomer in the racemic mixture. The mainstay of therapy for reactive airway diseases has been rapid-onset 2-agonist agents such as racemic albuterol. However, the recent isolation of (R)-isomer levalbuterol has provided a new option for the treatment of asthma and COPD. The use of levalbuterol therapy produces both clinical and economical advantages when compared to albuterol therapy. Buy custom Albuterol in Asthma essay

Ethics of a management accountant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethics of a management accountant - Essay Example This paper will discuss the ethics of management accountants and explain why there is a need for standardized code of conduct for the financial management practitioners and management accounting. Ethics refers to the fundamental principles or the moral values and rules that guide human behaviors on whether they are right or wrong on a specified line of profession. Ethics of a managerial accountant are meant to ensure that a certain level of trust is attained within the institutions and beyond. Ethical values in financial management are paramount for maintaining accuracy and proper interpretation and analysis of financial data. These ethical values are meant to eliminate any form of financial discrepancies introduced in books of accounts either intentionally or accidentally. In addition, financial variations have a negative effect on all the stakeholders and the information provided by the accountants is crucial for budgeting purposes by the organization’s top management (Duska, Duska & Ragatz, 2011). Moreover, financial and accounting ethics are very critical in any form of business or organization since it deals with actual facts and figures for institutions forecasting. The business management makes full use of the information provided by the accounting department when reviewing the business objectives and targets and also in the vital decision making situations. In addition, accounting practitioners have full access to sensitive business information and should be handled with great care to maintain organizations trust and confidentiality (Duska, Duska & Ragatz, 2011). Therefore, it is unethical to use this information for personal gain since it would lead to detrimental legal implications. For the above mentioned reasons, financial accounting ethics ascertain that managerial accountants can be trusted with sensitive business information if the enterprise is to realize

Design a research study regarding issue in developmental psychology Essay

Design a research study regarding issue in developmental psychology - Essay Example I am especially interested in the cases of those children who were kidnapped by someone other than a parent, and who were held for some time and structured into a â€Å"familial† relationship with their kidnapper/abuser. My research question is: What techniques do kidnappers use on kidnapped children to deconstruct and reconstruct identity and integrate them as a â€Å"family member† (however dysfunctional)? My hypothesis is: there are patterns of commonality in the techniques kidnappers use on kidnapped children to deconstruct and reconstruct self-identity and integrate them as a â€Å"family member† (however dysfunctional). The kidnapping of children by a stranger is a rare event (Gardiner). Fewer still survive months or years in captivity. It is rare but it happens. It happened to Jaycee Lee Dugard (ABC News). It happened to Shawn Hornbeck (CBS News.com). It happened to Elizabeth Smart (Netter, Stone and Friedman). They have told their stories, and surely ther e are others. I will collect data by looking at the cases mentioned, and any others I identify.

Telecommunications and Networking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 3

Telecommunications and Networking - Essay Example 'Cloud Computing’ matches a perception of an imaginary cloud that illustrates the Internet or most likely a corporate network environment that is represented by a cloud. The imaginary Internet cloud of a corporate network environment is trustworthy for data transportation. Moreover, it is incorporated with advanced cloud generalization. In order to extend the cloud-computing concept, there are services along with network components consisting of routers, switches, application servers, and data servers. The components of the network are installed to operate at the back-end for providing advanced services that are proficient to develop web application (What is cloud computing?). Moreover, cloud computing consists of applications that are represented as a service on the web and the provision of hardware / software services provided by companies operating data centers. Likewise, the services provided over the Internet are referred as (Software as a Service) ‘SaaS’. Fe w sellers use the term (Infrastructure as a service) IaaS and (Platform as a service) PaaS ’in order to demonstrate their products and services. However, these terms are avoided and not accepted globally, due to variation (ARMBRUST, FOX et al. 2010). The Commerce Department’s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have illustrated some helpful definitions that focus on three concepts (Ryan, Loeffler 2010): The core components of a cloud are consists of the data center hardware and software. When these resources are made available to the public, they are referred as public clouds and the service provided by the cloud is called as utility computing. Moreover, private clouds are only available to private organizations and are not accessible by public. Accordingly, cloud computing is the combination of ‘SaaS’ and utility computing (ARMBRUST, FOX et al. 2010).  

Computer Ethics And Impact Of Society Information Technology Essay

Computer Ethics And Impact Of Society Information Technology Essay This report is a study of computer ethics and its relevance to todays society .We live in the age of super computers where everything comes to us in our finger tips. Children get exposure to Internet much before they start their formal education. Computers are electronics devices invented by humans for the convenience and welfare of themselves which does not have any kind of thought process internally about the ethical behaviours. The dos and donts in the information technology and Internet are unknown to many computer users. As new evolving technologies come in and these technologies pays way to create challenges in the areas of privacy and security of people around the world. Ethics refers to code of principles by which people live .Computer Ethics is the branch of information technology which deals with the nature and computer technology and the end users and their varying characters. It sets a certain standards or rules for the will be smooth sailing. Some common computer ethics are intellectual property rights copyrighted electronic content, privacy concerns, by which how computers affect society. It involves social issues, such as access rights, working place monitoring, censorship and junk mail; professional issues such as professional responsibility and code of conduct; legal issues such as legal obligations, data protection, and computer misuse and software piracy. The computer ethics field consists of the problems with computer software and hardware malfunctions by the misuse by humans. Our society depends on the computer and its network to leverage the business and social life, hence both social and personal ethicals issues exists . Without computers and its networks most of the industries will not survive in todays work and will come to a halt. Most of the electronic communications do not guarantee any security and privacy. This report is a journey through the history of computer ethics the pioneers and their perceptions and slants on computer ethic s. Later on walks through the influence of computer ethics at work and the various factors that affects to determine the ethical behaviours. (Bynum, 2008) 2. HISTORY OF COMPUTER ETHICS 1940s As the technology evolves, the studies related to this field evolved as well. The introduction of computer ethics as a study came in the year 1940. Norbert Weiner was known as the father of computer ethics. In 1940s, Norbert Weiner who was an American mathematician and professor of Massachusetts Institute of Technology created the Cybernetics during Second World War. 1950s In 1950 Weiner publishes his second book The Human Use of Human Beings [Page 16 of second edition of 1954] When I communicate with a person, I impart a message to him and when he communicates back with me he returns a related message which contains information primarily accessible to him and not to me. When I control the action of another person I communicate a message to him and although this message is in the imperative mood, the technique of communication does not differ from that of a message of fact It is the thesis of this book that society can only be understood through a study of the messages and the communication facilities which belong to it; and that in the future development of these messages and communication facilities, messages between man and machines, between machines and man, and between machine and machine, are destined to play an ever increasing part. 1960s Later in 1960 Don B. Parker, an Information Security Researcher and Consultant -associated with the ACM(Association of computer machinery) started watching the unethical usage of computer and information technology by computer professionals (Parker, 1999) (Bowling Green State University., 2001) In 1966 a professor from MIT Joseph Weizenbaum wrote ELIZA A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication between Man and Machine. The first computer crime was in the year 1966 in the United States, a computer engineer manipulated the programs of a banks computer system to prevent the banking account being used flag as overdrawn. In 1966 the Freedom of information Act (FOIA) was the first computer law legal right to access the governments information 1970s 1970s were the time period where the computers revolutionized and Walter Manner who is a Professor of Computer Science and Director of the Artificial Intelligence Project at Bowling Green State University in Bowling Green, Ohio introduced the term Computer Ethics . Manner offered the university students a course on an experimental Course on the subject at Old Dominion University. During the late 1970s through the mid of 1980s, being a lecturer Mr,Maner was much interest in university-level Computer ethics courses. He offered a variety of workshops and lectures at Computer science conferences and philosophy conferences across America. In 1978 he also self-published and disseminated his Starter Kit in Computer Ethics, Which contained curriculum materials and pedagogical advice for university? Teachers to develop computer ethics courses. In 1976 Joseph Weizenbaum published a 300 page book, Computer Power and Human Reason which set the benchmark in computer ethics as a field and is still considered as the classic in computer ethics In 1976: Abbe Mowshowitz published an article, titled: On approaches to the study of social issues in computing. It identifies and analyzes technical and non-technical biases in research on social issues in computing. Five positions-technicism, progressive individualism, elitism, pluralism, and radical criticism-which reflect major streams of contemporary social thought are examined- The ACM digital library, volume 24, issues 3, March 1981 In 1979 Terrell Ward Bynum s Professor of Philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University 1980s In 1985 James H Moor who is a professor of Dartmouth College in Intellectual and Moral Philosophy published an influential article entitled What is computer ethics. In the same year followed by moor, Deborah Johnson of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute published Computer Ethics This is referred as the first textbook on computer ethics. The Electronic Communications Privacy Act ECPA of 1986 which prohibits the lawful access and disclosure of the law prevents government entities from requiring disclosure of electronic communications from a provider without proper procedure. (AOL Legal Department, 2003) 1990s Donald William gotterbarn in 1991 his paper work Computer Ethics: Responsibility Regained. explained computer ethics as a branch of professional ethics concerned with standards of good practice (Gotterbarn) (computerethics.org, 2000) In October 1992 the executive council of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) voted to adopt the revised the ACM Code. It is also called Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice ACM code of Ethics and Professional Conduct consisting of 24 imperatives formulated as statements of personal responsibility, identifies the elements of such a commitment [http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_ACM_code] In 1995, Dr,Simon Rogerson professor of computing at De Montfort University in Leicester, UK created the Centre for Computing and Social Responsibility (CCSR) to organize the first computer ethics conference in Europe, which was named as ETHICOMP95.lateron Rogerson added computer ethics to the curriculum of De Montfort. In 1995 Gordian Kocikowska, predicted on computer ethics giving a statement computer ethics eventually will evolve into global ethics in her article The computer revolution and the problem of global ethics In 1999 Deborah Johnson stood opposite to the statements of Gorniak and told computer ethics will not revolution rather than ethical thinking and analysis, computer ethics is the same ethics with a twist in the flavour. (Comphist, 2004) (Bynum, 2008) VIEWS OF PIONEERS Norbert Wiener Norbert Weiner in his book Cybernetics or control and communication in the animal and the machine in 1948, Cybernetics is formally defined as the science of control and communication in animals, men and machines. It extracts, from whatever context, that which is concerned with information processing and control. His essential goal of cybernetics is to understand and define the functions and processes of systems that have goals. Weiner said that the human nervous system can be compared to It is enough to say here that when we desire a motion to follow a given pattern the difference between this pattern and the actually performed motion is used as a new input to cause the part regulated in such a way to bring its in a state of what is known as ataxia.An ataxia of this type is familiar in the form of syphilis of the central nervous system known ad tabes dorsalis where the kinetic sense conveyed by the spinal nerves is more or less destroyed [page 7 and 8]. Amount of information in a sy stem is the measure of its degree of organization, so entropy of s system is a measure of its degree of disorganization. And one is simply negative the other.study of Maxwell demon [Page 11]. Donn B Parker In an interview with Donn told that he has interviewed more than 200 cyber criminals to understand the motive to get into computer crimes which shows the evidences of common behavioural psychological patterns. Computer criminals universally fear unpredictable circumstances, environments and events that could cause their crime to fail. Unpredictable systems would create an atmosphere of uncertainty (Bowling Green State University., 2001) Parker describes the scenario methodology in computer ethics, a need to identify the participant in the scenario. Sorting the act and non-act classifying as ethical or non-ethical or not in the category Deborah Johnson Deborah has a different view on computer ethics. She said pose new versions of standard moral problems and moral dilemmas, exacerbating the old problems, and forcing us to apply ordinary moral norms in uncharted realms, even though she do not agree with computer creating new moral problems James H Moor As per Moor in his article What is computer ethics ? defined ethics due to policy vacuum and conceptual muddles with regards to social and ethical use of computers and technology. Computers provide new capabilities and new choices for action. His advices to analyse the framework which results in policy for that action. He also added that computers are logically malleable which can be moulded to do any kind of activities Donald Gotterbarn According to Gotterbarn computer ethics should be considered as branch of professional ethics with focus on standards of good practices for computer professionals whom all are engaged in the design and development of in the everyday activities will add value to their professional value. Co-ordinating with ACM he released code of ethics for computer professionals. (Gotterbarn) (Bynum, 2008) 4. COMPUTER ETHICS IN SOCIETY Computers and human life are inter-related , we relish it in many areas of our day to day life in traffic signals, banking system, tax, and police. People blame on computers for cash machine crashes traffic signal failures where human designed these softwares and networks. the dilemma are the blunders associated with computers like ozone layer remained undetected due to programming error Y2K problem was not detected till we approached 2000.If we dig into the actual history of the computer ethics it started with the use of first computer. Computer and information technology is not limited as it is spreads with branches like a banyan tree; information technology has its branches in all the fields of Industry medical, automotive like that the list is not closed. Internet which is a by-product of ICT is revolutionary link to all these branches. We connect officially as corporate, be in touch with our loved ones, search engines, mail, instant messengers. As a medium of storage of critical to personal data, everything are on fingertip irrespective of the physical location as we can say the information technology moves with us and is available in the same or expected form on the web. (Herold, 2006) (Bynum, 2008) 4.1 COMPUTER CRIMES Most of the cyber criminals are anti-social element who gets motivated by the prior worst personal experience resulting in the crimes. Computer crimes can result in financial loss, information loss. Some major computer crimes in info space and as listed below which affects both work and personal life. (Herold, 2006) Hacking Virus Fraud Identity theft Denial Of Services DoS Child pornography IRC crime Software piracy Hacking Computer hacking has become a status among many youngster.. Hackers are tend to have better understanding of coding and break into computers and are aware of bypassing the security or can remain undiscovered in the network for a certain time without leaving footprints for the forensics by wiping out the log files. When we talk about the evil we should see the other side of the coin the virtuous which is ethical hacking .Ethical hacking is meant for attacking the computer system or network with the full permission of the sole. The most common ethical hacking technique is penetration test by inducing the code to the system and to be aware of the vulnerabilities by negligence as the hackers look for loop holes and create back door. Many corporate create their own IT security policies to secure their network. Virus Computer viruses are in the top most list of threat faced by the Information world. Computer program created to do nasty works inside which enters into a computer by mean of downloading softwares or mp3 files which calls them as Free softwares. Worm is much similar to the virus which gets replicated by human intervention; until and unless provoked remain quiet in the corner of the system. Trojan horses are interested in creating a back-door for the intruders in a compromised machine. Deploying a powerful anti-virus with the latest released virus definitions can help us in leading a peaceful life (Williams, 2003) Identity theft Financial identity theft is the widely asserted crime happening in the Internet. These intruders get into the system pretending the account holder of the bank by inputting false identity. A criminal identity thief uses the personal information including the national insurance number and social security number to do crime and leave it as the proof of identity. Medical identity theft is done by using another persons identity to obtain medical care or drugs where law restricts to purchase drugs. Computer security is the ultimate solution for identity theft by sanitizing the obsolete data in system and spam mails by installing anti-virus software which has powerful tools to protect online transactions. Most of the nations have law in place against these kind of identity thefts which includes heavy financial fine and imprisonment Denial of Services-DoS Denial of service wont affect neither the system security or destruct information loss any files make financial theft but can affect the targeted business by putting on fire ranging from second to days by making unavailability of a critical server, email or website which provides service as business . A buffer overflow with a prior assumption that of the weakness of programming or architecture of the applications used are the famous denial of service attacks that bench marked the history so far. Disabling the ICMP traffic in the firewall can prevent the ping of death. Implementing strong encryption techniques and deploying domain naming service. To overcome DoS attacks are by knowing the infrastructure and regular testing for complexity, keeping spam filters will limit mailbox getting flooded, if the business demands buying a space in the cloud or by keeping dramatically huge processor power and server volume will help to prevent such kind of issues. Pornography Pornography refers to any kind of image displaying a person who is being engaged in explicit sexual activity. In countries like Spain child pornography is a criminal offense if conventional pornography was in the paper based hard copy or video tape as technology advanced the Internet based pornography is image files or video files and on-line buffering. Severely punishing these criminals and these punishments to be brought to the notice of general public for their awareness that it will their experience if they do so. Association of sites advocating child protection ASACP was found in 1996 is meant for reporting child abuses in the society anonymously aiming to catch hold of the pornographers, they have a fully functional hot line and website asacp.org where people are report the crime . The RTA certificate helps children from accessing pornographic websites which is available Internet wide free of cost. (Barrons Educational Series, Inc, 1999) IRC Crimes Many people lose their privacy when then enter the IRC (Internet Relay Chat) rooms. The chat rooms become the playground of cyber criminals, hackers and terrorists. Verbal IRC crimes are where people get abused verbally in the chat rooms. The second category is clone attack where randomly synchronized codes are generated on behalf of usernames by robots to generate a random character which gets multiplied by the per-written code result in flooding and the chat server gets freezes due to Denial of service. Criminals use Cyber stalking to harass women and celebrities. IRC crimes can be stopped by simply ignoring or banning the user id which almost all chat sites allow. Salami Attack All these times we were talking about a crime which is relevant only to single attack , now lets talk about a series of tiny attacks which is categorized as salami slicing in computer cyber terms. The attacker steals a comparatively small amount of money from the account and the actual account holder will assume that it might be a service charge of any bank transactions or transaction which they might have done during shopping and wont be bothered to scrutinise the actual fact. such attacks will be done will multiple users which is like an atomic reaction. Botnet A bot is defined as zombie army which is an interconnected network of computers on the Internet with malicious infected software robots. The zombies army can be controlled only by the owner of the respective program. Botnet which is a malware can result in Denial of service attack. Criminals use this technique to utilize the shared processing power and memory Gradually the users system will face slow down .The solution to overcome the botnet is to install antivirus which can detect the malwares .(Parker, 1999) 4.2 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Intellectual property commonly referred as IP in short is associated with creativity of an artistic work, or invention of technologies. Computer professionals and students are committed not to copy other works to part of their work without their consent. Taking the credit of innovative work might not be technically a crime under law but it is unethical. According to Richard stallman the founder and pioneer of Free software , software it should not lie with certain limited people . His version is no one has the monopoly to own, it should be open to all it being claimed as information. The statement of Deborah Johnson is that softwares and applications are the outcomes of a group of professionals effort leveraged by their skill set. I would stand aside Johnson as this an industry which is the bread giving one, but outdated softwares can be release for public use and for students and financially backward people where the light of information world dint fall. Intellectual property is cat egorized into two by world intellectual property society as copyright and patent 4.2.1 Piracy Software piracy is the most controversial talk in the information space, if we never pay for free-ware used, the sharewares has to be payed depending on the usage entitled by the owner. Piracy lies somewhere in the middle where the customer need to be pay relatively small amount which is common in Asian countries. Piracy has spread to video industry as well by where the storage discs of newly released albums and movies are available in market for cheaper price .(Williams, 2003) 4.2.2 Open-source Vs Closed-source. Open-source applications are those applications available free of cost Closed-source applications are available in the market like windows operating system. Open-source softwares can be downloaded free of cost and can be manipulated using the source code. As the word refers closed source softwares are closed in many ways, so we can expect more security from them. It will not be easier for a hacker to create a threat in closed source. For an open source application the source is readily available to the end user, he can experiment the possible vulnerabilities and can create a threat from that. 4.2.3 Plagiarism Students are liable to stick on to plagiarism. Copying a colleagues crucial information is equivalent to theft. Plagiarism is a kind of cheating, school going kids do it by literally downloading and later amend it by changing the overall look by adding font colours. Arranging the referred website and book in a systematic way will help the student falling into plagiarism. Consolidating this data into bibliography will help the student in the safer side. (Bynum, 2008) (Williams, 2003) 4.3 PRIVACY AND ANONYMITY Spoofing Spoofing is the process of doing any kind of on-line data transfer where the origin of the data will be IP- spoofing and email spoofing the subcategories of spoofing . IP-Spoofing is the technique used to hide ones ip address and leverage other persons ip address to do some malpractices. In email spoofing the usually terrorists use this to send threatening email to home affairs department. Man in the middle attack is the by-product of spoofing where a person does the crime pretending the online transaction is done by the poor chap who owns the on-line account by network address translation on a cloud computing . Many corporate have security policies implemented to defend against these attacks Phishing Phishing is the tactics of sending fake emails giving an impression to the end user who receives the email mentioning he is receiving it on behalf of a well reputed organization most of the times from the billing or financial department claiming asking for the credit card details .Phishing sets either an upsetting message or an offer message which enables a psychological reaction in human Phishing scams are dramatically increasing now a day. To overcome in case of any discrepancies the link needs to be avoided and intimating the concerned person may be a good approach. Password protection Passwords are the keys to get into our privacy .Every individual have a bunch of passwords and most of them are identical for our own convenience. .If we are in a business critical position of a corporate or reputed brand. We should adhere to not sharing the passwords even with our friends; need to keep the passwords changed in a time interval of three months .need to make sure we are using complex passwords which contains alphanumeric characters as well. (Bynum, 2008) SOCIAL NETWORKING AND BLOGS Social networking in a spanning innovation of the present world. It is one among the innovations of the decade which if used in a supposed manner common population can make use of it .The advantage of social networking is wherever we go around the world we can be in touch with our loved ones and friends. Social networking can let a business man know the response of his products instantly from the blogs. As mentioned early when new invention is born with twin brother which is a crime . He looks identical twin until being as a crime. Social networking is an unavoidable part of our social life. We are kept updated by the blogs and status updates which is advantageous in many ways for a person who dont look at newspaper , improving his vocabulary, culture and will let him know what is happening around and most of them comes free of cost. An individual can upload a fake profile which can misguide many youngsters. Most of the social networking websites are privately owned and they dont rea lly look into the verification of the information provided in the user profile which might result in the misuse of profile for anti-social activities which can a celebrity or a religiously known influential person. (Barrons Educational Series, Inc, 1999) 5. COMPUTER ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY Computer professionals work on many technologies in different domains. They work on different programming languages and evolving technology platforms. They are spread around the world contributing their inventions. The computer professionals are not limited to computer scientists or software engineers. The chain will be incomplete without system analysts, warehouse professionals hardware designers, networking professionals, database administrators and IT managers. The basics of ethics should start from each computer professional .there would not be no one to monitor at work. Computer ethics should be self driven. The computer professionals should voluntary test and validate the errors without leaving any loopholes when the applications are build. There is a saying Engineers build the world where the same engineers destruct the world too. This is complementary as the engineers invented concrete mixing machines and cranes whereas the same engineers invented the bulldozer. It is the sam e case of computer industry where the softwares engineers develop softwares and the same software engineers create viruses. Usage of computer or network without the owners permission physically or virtually and damaging data is unethical and is certainly a crime. This crime can be monitored upto an extend by intrusion detection systems IDS. IDS is capable of monitoring the computers and its network in an organization. The IDSs are configured in such a way that whenever a deviation from standard policies it will trigger an alert to the system administrator. The computer professionals are obliged to certain responsibility, a software developer who develops is responsible to point out the drawbacks to the society during the primitive stage of the development. The professional should we educated towards the legal responsibilities of the applications as it could become a harm to the evolving technologies . According to me the legal and moral responsibility is mutual and the professional should look into the future inflictions. This lies on the shoulder of every member in the team. The members should report any kind of issues to their supervisors. Few disasters in the past which reminds us about the importance of ethics ; 1985 Therac- 25 radiation machine fail 1983 World war 3 Due to bug the soviet intelligence applications 1987 Wall street crash known as Black Monday 1990 ATT network collapse 1995 Airane explosion 1999 Siemens passport bug 2000 I love you virus, 2004 UK child support agency bug These events in the past reminds us the importance of the software testers were morally liable to the fix could have away because of negligence. Assuming the context of software development for a medical ACM Code The association for computing machinery ACM released the code of ethics and professional conduct which is set as a benchmark for computer ethics so far. It is a 24 which talks about the contributing to the society without harming giving credit to intellectual property with respect to privacy and honours confidentiality. Professional responsibilities striving to achieve quality and dignity in work and product. Maintaining competence with respect to the law pertaining professional work. Providing professional review and comprehensive evaluation. We should honour the contract and responsibilities assigned to us. Should improve public understanding. One should access the computer resource when they are supposed to do so. In 1992 Dr.Ramon C Barquin discussed the role of computer ethics through Computer ethics institute and is being used by reputed institutions and organisation which is quoted as below: 5.1 Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics 1. THOU SHALT NOT USE A COMPUTER TO HARM OTHER PEOPLE. 2. THOU SHALT NOT INTERFERE WITH OTHER PEOPLES COMPUTER WORK. 3. THOU SHALT NOT SNOOP AROUND IN OTHER PEOPLES COMPUTER FILES. 4. THOU SHALT NOT USE A COMPUTER TO STEAL. 5. THOU SHALT NOT USE A COMPUTER TO BEAR FALSE WITNESS. 6. THOU SHALT NOT COPY OR USE PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE FOR WHICH YOU HAVE NOT PAID. 7. THOU SHALT NOT USE OTHER PEOPLES COMPUTER RESOURCES WITHOUT AUTHORIZATION OR PROPER COMPENSATION. 8. THOU SHALT NOT APPROPRIATE OTHER PEOPLES INTELLECTUAL OUTPUT. 9. THOU SHALT THINK ABOUT THE SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE PROGRAM YOU ARE WRITING OR THE SYSTEM YOU ARE DESIGNING. 10. THOU SHALT ALWAYS USE A COMPUTER IN WAYS THAT INSURE CONSIDERATION AND RESPECT FOR YOUR FELLOW HUMANS. (Herold, 2006) 6. CONCLUSION Most of the crimes are happening due to underlying vulnerabilities in the system which remains undetected due to ignorance. All the computer relevant evils cannot be sanitized. By applying hot fixes and patches these security concerns could be covered .Privacy can be recalled by adhering by not sharing passwords with friends .A sophisticated intrusion prevention system in place will hinder many intruders and safeguards the system and network. A frequent auditing in the IT infrastructure and review can help in planning and implementing security systems. According to me the best thing is to be in touch with computer professionals and joining their communities and having an eye on the blogs can help us to get rid of the computer. Individuals are the basic building blocks of the society. So the decision making factor should start from the soul of each and every computer user. A focus on the information system failure and research on them could lime light on the computer ethics. Computer ethics need to be a part of the curriculum for students as they get exposure to information world and might get misleaded without guidance. If the communities are doing good it will for sure make a good impact in the progress of a good nation and in turn a good world. To attain this we should respect others privacy, the use of any software should not harm anyone else and end-users should be willing to pay closed source applications and contribute for sharewares .If we come across any discrepancies use our internal sense to relish need to keep the legal people informed about the issue. Employees should adhere to the organizations policies. Honesty and Integrity can strive to ethics. (Tom Forester, 2001) (Stamatellos)

Climate Change And Carbon Reduction Environmental Sciences Essay

Climate alteration is arguably one of the greatest environmental challenges confronting the universe today. The addition in atmospheric nursery gases has driven a rapid rise in the planetary temperature. Emissions ensuing from human activities are well increasing the concentrations of the nursery gases, C dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , CFCs ( CFCs ) and azotic oxide ( N2O ) and are doing nursery gas consequence. Carbon dioxide has been responsible for over half the enhanced nursery consequence in the past and is likely to stay same in the hereafter ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 ) . The Stern Review study suggests that a 25 % decrease below current degrees of emanations is required in order to stabilise planetary CO2 concentrations at degrees that will non hold really inauspicious impacts. And what we besides find out from the Stern Review is that the costs of non moving on clime alteration are greater than the costs of moving ( Stern Review 2006 ) . It has been recognised that developed states are chiefly responsible for the current high degrees of atmospheric GHG emanations ; the Kyoto Protocol places a heavier load on developed states and sets adhering emanation decrease marks of up to an norm of five per cent emanations reductionA compared to 1990 degrees over the five-year period 2008 to 2012. In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted. This launched a 2nd committedness period, get downing on 1 January 2013 until 2020 ( United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2013 ) . So, the motive for this research comes from the widely-accepted demand to greatly cut down the C dioxide ( CO2 ) and other nursery gases ( GHG ) emanations in order to extenuate anthropogenetic clime alteration. The societal, environmental and economic costs associated with C emanations could be immense and world can confront inauspicious effects. Therefore, the demand to cut down CO2 emanations has be en recognised as a cardinal portion of the on-going attempts to battle clime alteration.1.2. Carbon decrease in the United Kingdom: National contextThe UK histories for less than 1.5 % of planetary nursery gas emanations ; the authorities has a clear national involvement in guaranting that the universe tackles climate alteration together as it is a planetary job and it requires a planetary solution. ( HM Government 2011 ) . The UK authorities has had a turning committedness to sustainable development over the last 15 old ages, foremost establishing a scheme for sustainable development in 1994. Its current scheme, â€Å" Procuring the FutureaˆY was launched in 2005 and focused on four cardinal countries: ingestion and production, natural resource protection, sustainable communities and clime alteration ( Her Majesty ‘s Stationery Office 2005 ) . The current alliance authorities besides raises a motto of the ‘greenest authorities of all time ‘ , although it has non been followed through unfavorable judgment, and shows its strategic committedness towards low C economic system. The planetary jussive mood of clime alteration has been translated into national C decrease marks. The UK authorities has strongly agreed for C decrease after its Kyoto Commitments and has developed Climate Change Act 2008 which is the universe ‘s first long-run lawfully adhering model. It aims to promote the passage to a low-carbon economic system in the UK by puting ambitious C decrease marks of at least 80 % by 2050 and at least 34 % by 2020 against a 1990 baseline ( HMSO 2008 ) . The UK is committed to play a prima function in order to procuring planetary action to cut down C emanations which is consistent with restricting planetary temperature additions to below 2A °C ( HMSO 2010 ) . The UK clime alteration act develops a new attack of pull offing clime alteration through puting institutional marks, doing schemes for accomplishing them, beef uping institutional models and regular answerability.1.3. Carbon decrease in public sector: Higher Education contextThe mounting grounds of planetary clime alteration is one of the most of import issues for concerns. Carbon decrea se is traveling up the corporate docket and administrations now understand the demand to manage their emanations and it must be embedded within their concern patterns ( Carbon Disclosure Project 2010 ) . The UK populace sector has long been taking the manner when it comes to cutting energy costs andA C emanations and the research has revealed that the populace sector is the most committed to carbon decrease as compared to the private and 3rd sectors ( The Carbon Trust 2012 ) . Camco ( 2011 ) found that the entire nursery gas emanations emitted by public sector organic structures from the usage of electricity and fossil fuels in 2009/10 including for administrative concern conveyance are estimated to be 16.7-23.5 Million tCO2. Against this background, proactive actions are required by all of the populace sector administrations to cut down C and other nursery gases emanations. The Higher Education ( HE ) sector, due to the nature of its operational activities, preponderantly and straight emits C and to a much lesser extent other nursery gas emanations, frequently indirectly, such as methane ( CH4 ) ( Higher Education Funding Council for England 2010 ) . The Higher Education ( HE ) sector has a important societal and economic impact and is non exempt from disputing C decrease marks, in fact, it is argued, should be showing leading in the field. A research was carried out by Camco ( 2011 ) and was presented to the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , which suggests that the most cost effectual chances to accomplish the C decrease marks exist within the Further and Higher Education sectors. In 1990, sum HE sector C emanations were 2.445 million metric tons of C dioxide ( MtCO2 ) and in 2006 they were 3.288 MtCO2, a rise of 34 % ( HEFCE 2009 ) . The HE sector is being encouraged to take in C decrease as it is a important subscriber of C emanations in the public sector but besides because of the privileged place universities occupy in being Centres of research excellence and in cultivating ‘thought leaders ‘ for the hereafter ( HEFCE 2009 ) . HE is a turning consumer of energy and resources and generator of C emanations. In 2008-09 the UK Higher and Further Education sector administrations consumed 7.7 TWh of energy ( all fuels ) bring forthing emanations of 2.6 million metric tons of C dioxide equivalent ( Hopkinson and James 2011 ) . So, there is a demand to understand that how Higher Education Institutions ( HEIs ) can strategically cut down their increasing C emanations through an integrated and comprehensive attack. In National Carbon Strategy, HEFCE encourages higher instruction establishments to follow similar marks ( HEFCE, 2010a ) . Carbon decrease mark and scheme for higher instruction in England has besides been formulated in order to supply guideline for HE establishments to put their ain marks inline with the UK marks and so develop action programs through C direction programs. The lone marks do non run into consequences ; they need to be supported with the schemes. Within the following 10 old ages the higher instruction sector in this state will be recognised as a major subscriber to society ‘s attempts to accomplish sustainability through the accomplishments and cognition that its alumnuss learn and set into pattern, its research and exchange of cognition through concern, community and public policy battle, and through its ain schemes and operations ( HEFCE ) . Capital support for higher instruction establishments in England is linked to carbon decrease from 2011 which makes high er instruction ‘s senior direction concern about their energy ingestion and C emanations.1.4. Research purpose and aims:There is an ongoing demand to analyze and measure the procedure of C direction in the higher instruction sector and to suggest a clear route map for a strategic attack to better C direction. It is surprising that empirical research analyzing the strategic attack and committedness to carbon direction within the higher instruction establishments is comparatively thin ( Chapter 2: Literature Review ) . A research inquiry was formulated that â€Å" How higher instruction sector establishments can strategically pull off their C emanations from all of their organizational activities? †1.4.1. Purpose:The purpose of this research is to develop a strategic C direction model for cut downing higher instruction sector establishments ‘ C emanations in the context of the broader public sector.1.4.2. Specific aims:To consistently reexamine and measure the liter ature, paperss, schemes and C direction programs of the Higher Education ( HE ) sector establishments. To analyze the current province and effectivity of C direction within the higher instruction sector establishments. To place the drivers and barriers for C direction within the higher instruction sector establishments. To place and understand the characteristics and procedures for implementing effectual C direction schemes ; peculiar attending will be paid to the function of procurance and other range 3 emanations. To develop, suggest and formalize a Strategic Carbon Management ( SCM ) model for cut downing overall C emanations for the higher instruction every bit good as the broader public sector administrations.1.5. Novel part to the cognition:The PhD research will bring forth a coherent set of findings on a strategic attack to carbon direction and will hold the undermentioned original parts to the bing cognition. Contribution in the bing theoretical cognition of strategic C direction. Substantial/practical part for a strategic attack to carbon direction in the higher instruction sector every bit good as the wider populace sector. Strategic Carbon Management ( SCM ) model will be proposed for bettering HE C direction and implanting C direction in corporate scheme. It will research how range 3 emanations, peculiarly procurance can be incorporated into universities ‘ C direction procedure. Novel methodological part with qualitative and quantitative informations integrating.1.6. Thesis construction:The thesis will hold nine chapters and the staying chapters are outlined below:Chapter 2: Literature reappraisalThis chapter will present the theoretical background for the research through the reappraisal of bing literature around assorted facets of C direction.Chapter 3: Research MethodologyThis chapter will detail the overall design of the research and sketching the chosen research methodological analysis in order to run into research purpose and aims.Chapter 4: Systematic analysis of secondary informationsThis chapter will run into the first aim by consistently analyzing the secondary informations. It will chiefly dwell of universities ‘ C direction programs and schemes, other strategic paperss and relevant policies.Chapter 5: Policy context, drivers and barriers to carbon directionThis chapter will turn to C direction drivers and barriers with for higher instructio n establishments. It will besides turn to policies sing C decrease in general and higher instruction in peculiar.Chapter 6: Preliminary research findingsThis chapter will analyze and bring forth first stage preliminary research findings based on the explorative interviews carried out with higher instruction sector directors in order to inform more structured attack in the 2nd stage of the research.Chapter 7: Survey QuestionnaireThis chapter will supply public sector analysis based on the questionnaire study consequences. It will analyze the current province and effectivity of C direction within the higher instruction sector establishments, besides comparison between different sector organic structures in C direction leading.Chapter 8: De Montfort University Case StudyThis chapter will supply descriptive instance survey of De Montfort University to happen out what is presently go oning in relation to strategic C direction. It will assist in placing and understanding assorted characte ristics and procedures for implementing effectual C direction in a university. It will besides research the function of procurance and other range 3 emanations in C direction.Chapter 9: DiscussionThe treatment chapter will take the research findings from in-depth DMU survey and see in the context of wider higher instruction every bit good as the broader public sector administrations. It will integrate the development and proof of strategic C direction model for pull offing C emanations.Chapter 10: DecisionsThis chapter will summarize of the cardinal research findings and the original part to knowledge originating from this research, followed by way to future work.

Biology Lecture Notes – Characteristics of Living Things

Studying Life Characteristics of Living Things What are some characteristics of living things? No single characteristic is enough to describe a living thing. Some nonliving things share one or more traits with living things. Living things share the following characteristics: made up of units called cells reproduce based on a universal genetic code grow and develop obtain and use materials and energy respond to their environment maintain a stable internal environment change over time Characteristics of Living Things Living things are made up of cells. A cell is the smallest unit of an organism that can be considered alive. Characteristics of Living Things Living things reproduce. In sexual reproduction, cells from two different parents unite to form the first cell of the new organism. In asexual reproduction, a single parent produces offspring that are identical to itself. Characteristics of Living Things Living things grow and develop. During an organism’s development, cells differentiate, which means that the cells look different from one another and perform different functions. Characteristics of Living Things Living things are based on a universal genetic code. Organisms store the information they need to live, grow, and reproduce in a genetic code in a molecule called DNA. Characteristics of Living Things Living things obtain materials and use energy. The combination of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials is called metabolism. Characteristics of Living Things Living things respond to their environment. A stimulus is a signal to which an organism responds. Characteristics of Living Things Living things maintain a stable internal environment. Although conditions outside an organism may change, conditions inside an organism tend to remain constant. This process is called homeostasis. Characteristics of Living Things Taken as a group, livings things change over time. Over many generations, groups of organisms typically evolve. Big Ideas in Biology Science as a Way of Knowing Science is not just a list of â€Å"facts. † The job of science is to use observations, questions, and experiments to explain the natural world. Interdependence in Nature All forms of life on Earth are connected together into a biosphere, which literally means â€Å"living planet. The relationship between organisms and their environment depends on both the flow of energy and the cycling of matter. Matter and Energy Life’s most basic requirements are matter that serves as nutrients to build body structure and energy to fuel the processes of life. Cellular Basis of Life Organisms are composed of one or more cells, which are the smallest uni ts that can be considered fully alive. Information and Heredity Life’s processes are directed by information carried in a genetic code that is common, with minor variations, to every organism on Earth. That information, carried in DNA, is copied and passed from parents to offspring. Unity and Diversity of Life All living things are fundamentally alike at the molecular level, even though life takes an almost unbelievable variety of forms Evolution In biology, evolution, or the change in living things through time, explains inherited similarities as well as the diversity of life. Structure and Function Structures evolve in ways that make particular functions possible, allowing organisms to adapt to a wide range of environments. Homeostasis An organism’s ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in the face of changing external conditions is vital to its survival. Science, Technology, and Society Science seeks to provide useful information, but only a public that truly understands science and how it works can determine how that information should be applied. Branches of Biology There a many branches of biology. For example: Zoologists study animals. Botanists study plants. Paleontologists study ancient life. The job of science is to use observations, questions, and How can life be tudied at different levels? Branches of Biology Some of the levels at which life can be studied include: molecules cells organisms populations of a single kind of organism communities of different organisms in an area the biosphere Biosphere The part of Earth that contains all ecosystems Branches of Biology Ecosystem Community and its nonliving surroundings Branches of Biology Community Populations that live together in a defined area Population Group of organisms of one type that live in the same area Organism Individual living thing Groups of Cells Tissues, organs, and organ systems Cells Smallest functional unit of life Molecules Groups of atoms; smallest unit of most chemical compounds At all these levels, smaller living systems are found within larger systems. Biology in Everyday Life More than any other area of study, biology touches your life every day. Biology provides information about the food you need and the methods for sustaining the world’s food supplies. Biology describes the conditions of good health and the behaviors and diseases that can harm you. Biology is used to diagnose and treat medical problems. Biology identifies environmental factors that might threaten you. Biology in Everyday Life Biology helps you understand what effects the quality of your life. Biology provides decision makers with useful information and analytical skills needed to predict and effect the future of the planet. Quiz 1-3 An increase in size is known as growth. metabolism. development. differentiation. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of all living things? use of energy made of cells stable internal environment need for oxygen Which of the following are branches in the study of biology? ells, tissues, organs, and organisms botany, cell biology, ecology, and zoology populations, communities, and ecosystems the genetic code, evolution, and the biosphere The genetic code is carried in Water. DNA. proteins. soil. Which of the following shows the levels of organization in correct order from the simplest to the most complex? organisms, cells, populations, molecules, ecosystems ecosystems, populati ons, organisms, cells, molecules molecules, cells, organisms, populations, ecosystems molecules, organisms, cells, populations, ecosystems

Comment on the Ideas, Images and Poetic effects that particuarly interested you in To His Coy Mistress Essays

Comment on the Ideas, Images and Poetic effects that particuarly interested you in To His Coy Mistress Essays Comment on the Ideas, Images and Poetic effects that particuarly interested you in To His Coy Mistress Essay Comment on the Ideas, Images and Poetic effects that particuarly interested you in To His Coy Mistress Essay Andrew Marvell throughout his poem To His Coy Mistress uses many interesting poetic effects to capture his audience and to show his feelings.Marvells poem is basically a light hearted letter to his mistress. Throughout he is persuading his Mistress to stop delaying the event of losing her virginity, and to let him fulfil his fantasies of doing this.From the offset he has split his poem into 3 radically different stanzas like a syllogism. The first section taking time to show his mistress If he had the time he would spend all the time she wanted to build up to the event. Two hundred to adore each breast:/ But thirty thousand to the rest. [Lines 15-16]. The verb tense he uses here is conditional. This shows it might not be possible to do as he says.Shortly into the second section of the poem, he shows that this is probably not possible and they will have to do things quicker. But at my back I always hear / Times wingà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½d chariot hurrying near: The words in which he now uses ar e now talking about the future somewhat. He is showing her that this is not possible and pointing out however that they do not have time on their side. He shows it would not be possible to take so long adoring each breast as such time does not exist. Times wingà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½d chariot hurrying near represents and somewhat personifies time as the charioteer. He uses tempus fugit here a lot, which means time flies. It also shows the end of time coming, death is shown as time being used up as the chariot approaches.Time is spent in the second stanza showing to the Mistress that time is not something they have with them. He tries to show that they must get on with it. He uses the phrase And yonder before us lie / deserts of vast eternity [Lines 23-24]. This shows that they must use the time given or else the boredom would be the only thing left (death).Another idea I like of Marvells is the use of Coy in the title. Coy is a word meaning shy, but also can imply she is flirtatiously hard to get which could show that Marvell knows of her true thoughts and her modesty. Also it is shown elsewhere in the poem. And while thy willing soul transpires. [Line 35] This shows he knows she is willing and burning with desire but needs further persuasion to let her inhibitions rest.He uses Personification of time as a great effect. Firstly as Times winged chariot and then in the final two lines of the play. Thus, though we cannot make our sun / Stand still, yet we will make him run. This puts forward the image of the sun being personified as something which can be made to run is bold. It reduces the sun in scale to the level of a servant.Overall I think that Marvells poem was intended as maybe a pun at his wife and was written in a lighthearted manner.

Free Essays on Piagets Theory Of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Thesis Statement: Jean Piaget is one of the most important theorists in all psychology who forged one of the most comprehensive and compelling theories of intellectual development. PIAGET’S BACKGROUND Jean Piaget was born in Neuchatel, Switzerland. Piaget considered his father a careful thinker, as his profession was medieval historian at the University. Piaget’s mother, in contrast, was highly emotional and created tension within the family. Piaget adopted his father’s academic discipline and found refuge from the family’s conflicts in his own research. Piaget showed promise as a scientist from the start. At 10 years old, he published his first article on an albino sparrow he had seen in a local park. Piaget began to study children in 1920 while working in the Binet Laboratory in Paris. There he was to construct an intelligence test for children. Initially, he found the work boring, however he quickly became interested in the children’s answers, particularly the wrong answers. It is then he realized that the wrong answers formed a pattern that was quite different than older children or adults. OVERVIEW OF PIAGET’S THEORY Piaget believed that we were born motivated to construct meaning out of new experiences, and the child wants to learn. Children are inherently active learners, not blank slates. He did not believe that children’s thinking is shaped by adult teachings or other environmental influences. Although Piaget’s researched changed over the years, each part of it contributes to a single, integrated stage theory. He has broken down the learning process into periods. Period I: Sensory-Motor Intelligence: Piaget’s first developmental period consists of six stages: Stage 1 – Birth to 1 Month: The Use of Reflexes The infant’s first schemes (the infant’s action-structures) consist primarily of inborn reflexes. The most prominent... Free Essays on Piaget's Theory Of Cognitive Development Free Essays on Piaget's Theory Of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Thesis Statement: Jean Piaget is one of the most important theorists in all psychology who forged one of the most comprehensive and compelling theories of intellectual development. PIAGET’S BACKGROUND Jean Piaget was born in Neuchatel, Switzerland. Piaget considered his father a careful thinker, as his profession was medieval historian at the University. Piaget’s mother, in contrast, was highly emotional and created tension within the family. Piaget adopted his father’s academic discipline and found refuge from the family’s conflicts in his own research. Piaget showed promise as a scientist from the start. At 10 years old, he published his first article on an albino sparrow he had seen in a local park. Piaget began to study children in 1920 while working in the Binet Laboratory in Paris. There he was to construct an intelligence test for children. Initially, he found the work boring, however he quickly became interested in the children’s answers, particularly the wrong answers. It is then he realized that the wrong answers formed a pattern that was quite different than older children or adults. OVERVIEW OF PIAGET’S THEORY Piaget believed that we were born motivated to construct meaning out of new experiences, and the child wants to learn. Children are inherently active learners, not blank slates. He did not believe that children’s thinking is shaped by adult teachings or other environmental influences. Although Piaget’s researched changed over the years, each part of it contributes to a single, integrated stage theory. He has broken down the learning process into periods. Period I: Sensory-Motor Intelligence: Piaget’s first developmental period consists of six stages: Stage 1 – Birth to 1 Month: The Use of Reflexes The infant’s first schemes (the infant’s action-structures) consist primarily of inborn reflexes. The most prominent...

Communication and Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Communication and Language - Essay Example He will now look at and reach rather than grasp an object as an adult presents it. He has also become more willing to perform familiar actions on an object without mouthing it but using his hands to hold and manipulate objects for longer. He has also shown greater attention to where objects move to or from during the activity. This has been particularly noticeable during our greeting sessions. At the beginning of September he needed adult coactive support to tap a drum to say ‘hello’, as he has become more familiar with activity where he begun to use both hands to tap a drum with adult verbal encouragement. Now he will reach instruments spontaneously to say ‘hello’ as adult moves around the circle asking ‘who want to say hello first’. He is also able to indicate if he wants to continue the tapping action or he finished saying ‘hello’ by clapping his hands to indicate more or pushing the drum away. He finds it amusing if an adult cop ies his simple drumming actions, responds with a smile, and listens to it. Interacting Pupil's progress Charlie has been working towards developing his interaction and playing skills with adult and peers. Charlie has made steady progress with developing his communication, social, and interactive skills with class staff and peers as the year has progressed. He has shown an increasing interest in trying to influence the adult actions during self-occupation time to get what he wants or during group session as mentioned above and one-to-one sessions such as interactive games focusing on communication, taking turns, interacting and responding to adult partner. For example, simple hand clapping games that requires him to form quick thinking, cooperation, and reaction to a game like clapping one's own hands, clapping both hands of a partner, and clapping one hand of a partner, generally across such as the right hand of each player at an appropriate junction.   During self-occupation time , he will move in the direction of the plasma screen and make brief eye contact with an adult to let them know what he wants. If the adult ignores his communication, he will walk around the plasma screen, look behind the speakers, turn on a socket plague and manipulate a key to open the box with laptop attached to the screen. During leisure time, when approached by an adult and asked, â€Å"what you want Charlie?† he will hold his hand and guide him in the direction of the plasma screen or balcony / class door to watch his friends playing or to go for a walk. He is now learning to transfer these learnt skills to class activities. Last year, Charlie preferred contact with adults to that with peers, but this year he has been starting to pay more attention to his class friends if he is engaged in a simple game with them or when they are exploring interesting things. For example, he will pay attention to an interesting object controlled by another pupil, and will come to him or h er, reach for the item and explore it for brief moment before giving it back to his peer. This term, Charlie has developed a friendship with two girls in class Huma and Aiashah. He responded with interest to social overtures from them and used some actions to prolong interaction with them. For example, he will sneeze on purpose to make Aaishah laugh or will allow her to hold his hand and move them in the rhythm of ‘

Human security thoery and it,s implications Essay

Human security thoery and it,s implications - Essay Example The difference from traditional security is that the causes of conflict, such as economic inequality, are addressed. Achievements of those countries who adhere to the principles of human security, which include Canada, have succeeded in a number of practical ways, with the ban on anti-personnel mines and the new International Court as examples. There is a growing movement which seeks to suggests that as the United Nations stated in 1994, "the concept of security has for too long been interpreted narrowly" as the protection from physical aggression for individual countries, and thus the protection of their borders. In the global sense, the threat from possibilities such as nuclear war has been regarded as security. Human security is a massive and broad concept: a threat to it can be regarded as "any kind of unexpected or irregular discomfort". Some more concrete definition is needed. The United Nations has defined human security in the following manner, It is made up of seven specific elements, including economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community and political security. Individual governments choose to concentrate on particular elements of the security that are most suitable, or some would suggest politically expedi